The Boston Tea Party Essay Example for Free

The Boston Tea Party Essay The Boston Tea Party was protested by American colonists. They stood up against Great Britain. In this paper i will closely examine the boston tea party. The hard-fought American Revolution against Britain (1775-1783) was the first modern war of liberation against a colonial power. The thirteen American colonies wanted to be free from rule by Great Britain. The war was resulted with the victory of this thirteen colonies, and Americans reached to the independance. American Revolution is a result of forcing American Colonies to pay more and more taxes by King of England, George III, and this will be the starting point of a new civilization. There were too many acts before the revolution get started. These are Sedicion Act, Alien Act, Quebec Act, Tea Act and Sugar Act. The most important act is Tea Act. The occurrence of the Boston Tea Party on 16 December 1773 was perhaps the most significant event in the period of disagreements between the British Government and American Colonists from 1763 to 1774. It effectively came about when Lord North decided to allow the East India Tea Company to sell tea in America through agents, rather than the traditional public auction system. For financial and political reasons, the Colonists opposed this new development and the crisis exploded at the port of Boston when 90,000 pounds of tea were thrown into the harbour. Whether justified or not, the Colonists felt the British Government were taking away their right to govern themselves. From that point until mid 1772, The Revolution was still unlikely, calmer heads had prevailed despite the undying efforts of Massachusetts native and cousin of John Adams, Samuel Adams. Sam Adams traveled throughout Massachusetts and the Colonies establishing what he called Committees of Correspondence and called for a formal separation from Britain. These Committees were designed to provide a superior communications system between the separate Colonies. Then, beginning in June 1772, a number of events took place which carried all Americans, whether they willed it or not, across the line from malcontent, to revolution, and eventual freedom. One evening in June, near the port of Providence, in Rhode Island the British schooner Gaspee grounded herself and was set upon by a group of Colonists who put ashore English crew and then burn her to the waterline. In the following months Virginia and a number of other colonies establish official Committees of Correspondence in order to keep other colonies appraised of English activities in their respective lands. In May the English passed the Tea Tax, granting a virtual monopoly to the East India Tea Company in order to bail it out of debt and thereby avoid a massive domestic economic tragedy. The tea is not only taxed higher than before, but now the East India Tea Company is able to price gouge without any threat of competition or governmental retribution. All over America, mass meetings are held in regard to what should be done about the tax. Following two meetings in Boston where Royal Governor Hutchinson orders the citizenry to pay the tea tax. On the night following the second meeting, Sam Adams an a number of his followers attacked the tea freighters in Boston harbor. Disguised as Native Americans, they overpowered the crews and threw their loads of tea into Boston harbor. This event was to become known as the Boston Tea Party. In Annapolis, Maryland a similar event occurred resulting in the burning of both ships and cargoes. (â€Å"Prelude to Revolution†The American Pageant) In response to the Boston Tea Party, an enraged parliament passed the Intolerable Acts of 1774. They were designed to punish the whole of Massachusetts, and especially Boston. Worst of all was the Boston Port Act which closed Boston harbor until the lost cargoes were paid for and order was fully restored to the city. Coinciding with the ratification of the Intolerable Acts was the passing of the Quebec Act. The Quebec Act was a skilled move by the English to appease the conquered French in Canada. It allowed them to retain their old customs, the Catholic Religion, and gain large tracts of land extending all the way south to the head of the Ohio River. In French Quebec, it was not expected that people would be able to elect legislative assemblies nor that a jury would be hired for civil cases, the British kept this aspect of the French-Canadian government and was seen by the Quebeckers as just and fair. To the Americans who valued their juries, suffrage, western lands, and often despised Catholicism, it was seen as yet another attack on them and their liberties. It seemed clear in the Colonies that the time for action had arrived. (â€Å"Prelude to Revolution† The American Pageant â€Å"The Revolutionary War†) On March 5, 1770, a mob of Bostonians harassed Red Coat guards outside a customs house and when the harassment became unbearable, a soldier opened fire and the others followed suit. This event, the Boston Massacre, inspired one of the most effective pieces of patriotic propaganda that were becoming popular in newspapers. Paul Revere created an engraving depicting that night showing how brutal the Red Coats were, although it was the colonists who instigated it. These propagandas were important because they influenced the common beliefs of what would define patriotic Americans. The Bostonians were against the new Tea Act, which put a heavy tax on tea. One night, a group called the Sons of Liberty led by such patriots as Samuel Adams, Paul Revere and John Adams, dressed up like Indians a dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor. This famous night called the Boston Tea Party infuriated the British government who demanded that Massachusetts pay for the lost tea. When Massachusetts refused, Britain punished Boston with the Intolerable Acts. The ports of Boston were shut from any ships coming or going. The town meetings were forbidden. Boston was put under martial law and any soldier who misbehaved was to be sent to England to be tried because Britain thought they would not get fair trial in America. The Americans perceived this as the Englishmen getting away with their wrong doings because they were unlikely to be convicted in London. The Americans began to call George III a tyrant. The Sons of Liberty were the first to talk about separation and were the biggest threat to British sovereignty. They began to lose a respected connection with England and would rather govern themselves like Mather Byles who would prefer to be ruled by his own countrymen (black, j 1994). Within a month after Boston was shut down, Virginia contacted the other colonies to meet in Philadelphia. Five people were killed by British soldiers, and Britain’s harsh military tactics also angered the colonists, because even those who were not involved in revolutionary tactics were accused of rebelling against the British. The Boston Massacre exemplifies how British military measures backfired and allowed the colonists to gain a sense of unity in working towards a common goal of independence. Therefore, militarization was also a factor which led colonists to the outbreak of war with Britain, and help towards the dispute between the Britain and its American colonies. The boston tea party led to the so first Continental Congress. Fifty-six delegates assembled at Philadelphia and talked about the issue with Boston. The colonies gathered supplies to be sent and help relieve the citizens of Boston (Black, J 1994). This was a sign of unity and concern for their fellow colonies. During the Continental Congress, the delegates wrote another Declaration of Right and Grievances asking that all laws passed by Parliament after 1763 be repealed. George III wouldn’t even receive the document though. They also began to prepare their military by organizing their militias, gathering weapons and training men. They also established the Continental Association which would not trade with Britain. The American were uniting against there new common foe and becoming Americans (David, D 1990). In the events that led up to the revolution, a sense of unity was definitely acquired, but an American identity was not as prevalent. Although there was a strong opposition to the British government, it did not represent the entire population of the American colonies. Colonists felt the British were trying to take the power away from their colonial assemblies to govern them. They were also angry because they believed they should not be taxed simply to raise revenue for Britain. Therefore, in conclusion, I think that rhetoric of liberty and representation were the predominant issues in the dispute between Britain and American colonies, between 1763 to 1776. Who was to blaim for the boston tea party and the ensuing masacre is up for debate. However, other factors also had an important part, but all of the other factors which have been looked at above, always angered the American colonies because they felt these factors took away the colonists liberty, and felt that it wasn’t fair for Britain to have such control over them if the colonies had no representation. Works cited 1 Black,Jeremy. War For America. New York:St. Martin’s Press,1994 2 Davis,David Brion. Rvolutions. London:Harvard Universtiy Press,1990 3 The American Pageant. Prelude to Revolution 4 From Revolution to Reconstruction. Common Sense Index I. (odur. let. rug. nl/~usa/D/1776-1800/paine/CM/sense01. htm)

A History Of Feminism English Language Essay

A History Of Feminism English Language Essay Feminism is a historically recurring phenomenon, being a potent form of cultural identity to take on linguistic and social expression (Simon, 1996; 7). The concept of gender in an era of feminism, a period powerfully influenced by feminist thought, has been the focus of research in the field of translation studies. Issues of gendered identity within translation was first introduced by feminist thinkers in the 1960s and 1970s to question the cultural and political powerlessness of women (von Flotow, 1997: 5). The emergence of Canadian feminist translations (Godard, 1990, Lotbinià ¨re-Harwood 1991; von Flotow 1991), established a school of work, modelling a theory from incorporating feminist ideology into translation, which resultantly has influenced international translation studies. The pre-established notion that language was not only a man-made artefact but an expressive tool to reflect on male ideology impelled discussions of gender and translation. Contemporary theorists viewed this patriarchal language, traditionally used in largely male-run institutions such as universities, as an instrument of womens oppression (Lotbinià ¨re-Harwood 1991; von Flotow 1991). Needing to radically change these conventions, feminist translating during the 1970s sought to undermine and subvert patriarchal language, to introduce new, experimental ways of writing so that language could be used as a cultural intervention; an endeavour to alter expressions of dominance whether at the level of syntax or semantics (Simon, 1996: 9). Feminist theories have also initiated a revision of the terms central to translation studies and feminism, such as traditional hierarchies and gendered roles, and rules defining fidelity. Under the influence of the cultural turn, contemporary translation was not only an operation of linguistic transfer, but also one that created new textual forms and introduced new paradigms of knowledge. Translation is considered as a way of engaging with literature; where the feminist thought creates new lines of cultural communication, where translators are involved in a politics of transmission (Simon1996:viii). In addition, feminist theorisers saw a parallel between womens oppression in language and culture and its association to the devaluation of translation (Chamberlain, 1992). Translations themselves, given that they are secondary pieces of work, have negatively been linked with implications of discursive inferiority. The authority of the original over the reproduction is linked with imagery of masculinity and femininity; the original is considered the strong generative male, the translation the weaker and derivative female. (Simon, 1996: 1)  [1]  From this, the art of translating has been envisioned as a feminine activity (Simon 1996; Flotow 1997). Nonetheless, despite its historical status as a weak and passive composition, translating has offered a means of expression for women; allowing them to contribute to the intellectual and political aspects of society. In precedent years, scholarly authorship was primarily regarded as a male activity in European culture, and published literary work by women was susceptible to accusations of presumption (Krontiris 1992: 17-18).  [2]  Adversely, translation offered an opportunity for women to become involved in literary culture in a way that did not openly challenge social or literary power arrangements. Another theoretical view challenges the belief that the status of translation is analogous to that of women. Simon (1996) distinguishes a language of sexism in translation studies, noting connotations with dominance, fidelity and betrayal. Representative of this is the seventeenth century adage of les belles infidà ¨les, a term coined by Gilles Mà ©nage to describe the French practice of translation.  [3]  4The idea it encapsulates is that translations, like women, can be either beautiful or faithful, but not both; thus, being viewed as mutually exclusive. The term has hence come to signify a type of translation that diverges from its original to an extent that it betrays the source text. Such disparaging comparisons lead to objections and strong criticism on behalf of the feminist thinkers. According to Chamberlain (1992), terms such as les belles infidà ¨les express the traditional depreciation of both women and translation, resulting in the basis of feminist translation the ory: to identify and critique the tangle of concepts which relegates both women and translation to the bottom of the social and literary ladder (Simon, 1996: 1). From the revioson of such theories, it is discernible that taking a feminist approach on translation seeks to challenges the conventional hierarchies in society. Issues of language and gender have become intertwined, where gender can be seen as an element of identity and in some ways, takes form through social consciousness (Spivak, 1990). Applying a feminist voice to translation projects allows a translator to assert her identity and ideological stance. The feminist translator shows her critical judgement and her interminable re-reading and re-writing, flaunts the signs of her manipulation of the text highlighting her role on determining meaning to her work (Godard 1990: 91). What feminist theory highlights is this renewed sense of agency in translation, allowing the reader to make cultural sense of the difference between original and translation. Feminist translation endeavours to extend and develop the intention of the source text. Sherry Simon (cited in Arrojo, 1994) argues that the remarkable aspect of translation is that represents equivalence in difference. Taking into account the feminist perspective, provides an alternative voice to the original text, aiming to make the feminine visible in language (De Lotbiniere-Harwood, 1996: 15). Von Flotow (1997: 10) also expresses this intent by stating, if we continue to speak the same language, we will reproduce the same (his)story, therefore showing the need to create new lines of transmission. Exemplary of this approach is the Bible where revised versions provide a fresh vantage point for the reader. The eventual production of The Womens Bible (Stanton, 1895) was an attempt to draw attention to the sexist nature of current translations.  [5]  It was seen as a way to develop a language in an effort to alter expressions of domination and de-construct patriarchal language. political motive De Lotbinià ¨re-Harwood defined translation as a political activity making language speak for women. (Santaemilla, 2005: 36) but needs a limitation. Duly, feminist translation opens up the question of fidelity, which has been an established quandary throughout the history of translation.  [6]  The meaning of the original and the message intended for the reader can be uncertain and constantly subject to interpretation and distortion. A translation significantly altered will result in the work being an adaptation rather than a reproduction of the source text. Determinately, an excessive amount of manipulation will result in a loss of originality, where Brazilian critic Rosemary Arrojo (1994), states that it is contradictory to claim fidelity to a text one deliberately subverts.  [7]   However, for feminist translations, fidelity is to be directed toward the writing project itself, rather than to the authors original or the reader (Simon, 1996). Though there is recognition that the translator arbitrates the role of interventionist, as she reproduces faithfully but has scope for intervention, albeit this does not mean that the translation can be free in her reproduction but that her work should be shaped and focused by its final aims.  [8]   Another constraint is that translations themselves are made for a target audience, usually dependent on the receptor language. Likewise, a radically feminist text will only target one specific readership Equally, certain problems can arise from attempting to translate a highly masculine text With the prevalence of machismo in Spain and Latin America, the work of translating cultural gender differences has repeatedly raised issues of sexism. Suzanne Levine (1983: 83), experiences difficulties when translating metaphors and images referring negatively to women, questioning whether to repeat the same archetype in her translation.  [9]  Not only will it possess a question of fidelity but also a loss of originality. The presence of a system of sexist thinking in an authors work can make it very difficult to translate with a feminist approach. Obviously, the substance of the work represents a certain meaning that the author aspires to express, a meaning behind the choice of words, and through feminist thinking, this message could be lost through translation. Another obstacle when appropriating a feminist translation may stem from cultural problems rather than linguistic. Trying to re-work a text that is reflective of a specific time period it is written manifests difficulties. Translations of various books from the Bible have incorporated the use of neutral pronouns in an attempt to eliminate male-bias language (Haugerud, 1977).  [10]  Feminist revisions of the Bible do not seek to change the content of the text but are rather concerned with the language in which this content is expressed.  [11]  In riposte, Nida (cited in von Flotow, 1997: 55) asserts that the Bible needs to be read in the context of the male-dominated society in which it originated. Bearing these factors in mind, revising the language from a radically feminist perspective can considerably change the tone and meaning. Gender neutrality can be a way to explicitly avoid a Karen Nà ¶lle-Fischer (1995) translation has shown her the immense benefits of a language in which gender need not be immediately revealed in the nouns, adjectives or participles an author uses. In English, it is easy to postpone revealing the sex of any character, thus heightening the effect of gender when this mysterious person turns out to be contrary to what is believed.. It is thus possible to maintain ambiguities leave things up to the readers imagination and not impose one particular reading. It is difficult to maintain this ambiguity in gender marked languages. Given the characteristics inherent in languages with grammatical gender, where it explicitly references the sex of the noun, translators providing an English version of the source text will face uncertainties when translating. Canadian feminist translators innovated to find new formulas of expression that did not erase the gender marks of the original (Lotbinià ¨re-Harwood 1991; von Flotow 1991).  [12]   When looking at the contents page of the text, various language manipulations occur, in the titles of the short stories. The majority of them reflect on the translators position to remain neutral when re-working the gender-marked Spanish: Regalo para una novia, where sweetheart has been chosen instead of the more obvious girlfriend. This again can be seen with El huà ©sped de la maestra, without making explicit references to the sex ot the subjects in English.  [13]   Another difference can be seen with the translation of a word, as is explicit in Marà ­a la boba. Boba which refers to silly or naÃÆ' ¯ve gives off a negative connotation, but the English simple is quite neutral, reflecting that the author wished not to attribute a negative connotation to Marà ­a, Peden presenting her own feminist perspective. Yet probably the most striking alteration is with Nià ±a perversa, where not only does the English opt out of referencing the sex of the child, but translates perversa as wicked. Although accurately, wicked is a true rendering of the word perversa, the two do not share the same connotation even after having read the story.  [14]   However, if perversa was translated as perverted in the English, it would have a rather stronger connotation than the Spanish, and thus ascertaining the issues behind a cultural sense of the difference between original and translation. The alteration in the translation is not of a significant difference, demonstrating Simons belief of equivalence in difference. Another example where meaning is sometimes lost through translation is during the opening paragraph of the story. The young girl, Elena, is described as skinny and unattractive, as una cachorra desnutrida where the English translates as a scrawny whelp. A few lines on, with regards to Elenas solitary character she is referred to as una gata, where Peden writes a waif. Does mean wicked but dependent on the context, and I dont think it applies here. In the Spanish the metaphors plants a specific image in the readers mind, which is therefore lost in the English translation, as there is no build up of metaphors.  [15]   Interestingly, the translation does not take a strong feminist approach, showing that all translations need not be radically feminine. Pedens English translation remains faithful to the original text, rendering the meaning of Allendes stories within her new reproductions.

Development of International Business

Development of International Business People today wake up by an alarm clock made in China, shave with a French razor, dress in Italian-designed (Pakistan-made) clothes and drive their way to work with a German car. Small facts from our daily routine justify that the last 100 years the internationalization (some would say globalisation) of business can be said to have re-drafted the world economic map (Woods, 2001). Globalisation, despite the numerous changes caused at national and international level, set new rules for all enterprises, no mater their size if a business is to be successful then it needs to be aware of the general environment. From the moment trade and economic environment changed, firms turned international in order to maintain their competitiveness and expand their activity into new markets (Hodgetts, 2003). Therefore, multinational enterprises (MNEs) should keep in mind that international trade, as a result of globalisation, is now the primary profit source. Also, MNEs should re-consider their financi al and production tactics if they want to gain more from the global-market environment, such as focus on specialization (ibid). The purpose of this essay is to discuss the primary ways International Business occurs and examine the advantages and disadvantages of international trade and specialization with an extended look at free trade. Two Primary Ways of International Business Development The basic idea for firms going global is to expand their existing sales with reducing the costs of making the additional sales. How will they achieve that? They have two primary ways: first, imports-exports worldwide (International Trade) and second, direct foreign investment (FDI) or portfolio investment. The first way is usually seen as Adam Smiths basic principle of exchange, as an attempt to explain why countries trade, while the second way is the base of international capital flow. International Trade As mentioned before, firms and countries expect some gains from this exchange such as: lower production costs, improved products quality and higher sales profits. However, in the early years of trade, the theory of mercantilism was against that assumption and it was Smith who reacted to this theory by setting up his absolute advantage theory (Mnieh, 2010). Mercantilists in the 18th century believed that a countrys wealth should be measured by the gold and silver the country possessed, so the more precious metals the country had the richer and more powerful it was. Also, the exports were seen as good because they brought silver/gold, whereas imports were bad because they reduced the amount of gold and silver from the country. Mercantilists wanted to encourage countries to export more than import; therefore, they proposed that exports should be increased and imports decreased by means of tariffs or quotas. As a result, under this theory, only one party could gain from trade (Brewer, 2000). However, mercantilism theory did not explain the basic questions of international trade such as, which goods are exported or imported, in what quantity and by whom (ibid). Adam Smith addressed these questions, and he produced the theory of absolute advantage. That theory holds that countries who use resources more efficiently can gain more by focusing on the specialization of their most efficient product and importing the goods they produce inefficiently. Consequently, the specialized production of a commodity gives a country an absolute advantage on that product, and the countrys resources are focused on the production of the profitable output instead of split up or wasted on other, less profitable, outputs. Absolute advantage, however, can explain only a small part of the worlds trade today and does not include any evidence about the determination of trade (Rugman and Collinson, 2006). In 1819, David Ricardo, based on Smiths work, examined the questions What happens when a country can produce all products at an absolute advantage? Would trade still benefit both countries now? And developed the theory of comparative advantage. According to Ricardos theory, a country has a comparative advantage in a product when it has a higher degree of superiority in its production, and it has a comparative disadvantage in a product when its degree of superiority is lower, relative to another country. In order to understand that theory completely, we need to introduce the concept of opportunity cost (Woods, 2001).. We assume that a country produces two goods, A and B, so the opportunity cost is the cost related to the amount of good A which must be sacrificed in order to produce one additional unit of good B (Mnieh, 2010). Therefore Ricardo, suggested that a country with an absolute advantage in all lines of production should trade with another country in the product which has the higher opportunity cost in order to gain from the other countys lower opportunity cost. Foreign Direct Investment The second way international business occurs is through equities. According to Collinson (2006), a tactic usually applied by nations and MNEs to gain access to a foreign market is equity funds invested in other nations. Therefore, a definition used for foreign direct investment (FDI) is the control and ownership of foreign assets. The basic idea for the FDI concept is that corporations find it more beneficial to purchase another foreign company, simply to acquire the companys market share and know-how in the host country. It has to be mentioned that FDI is different from portfolio investment. Foreign portfolio investment is a transfer of capital from one country to another, whereas FDI contains the issue of control and ownership of the activities abroad. Another common tactic of FDI is the union of capital of multiple corporations to a joint venture, in order to purchase together the foreign company aboard (Rugman, 2006). There is a substantial number of reasons why multinational corporations are interested in expanding their activities and influence in foreign assets. The primary reason is to increase their sales and profits. According to the UN World Investment Report (2006), numerous large multinationals have earned millions of pounds through overseas sales every year since they went abroad. Not only large firms gain benefits from activities abroad but a large number of smaller firms increase their revenues as well. MNEs financial and production activities pay the way for local suppliers to get involved with the multinationals and maybe supply them to other worldwide locations (ibid). The second reason is the lower costs abroad. Lower labour cost, for example, is a considerable reason for transferring a companys production facilities to a place where labour is much cheaper. In addition to this, MNEs can consider other factors such as materials supply, transportation costs and energy issues, which affect managers decisions to move their activities abroad. Another reason is to enter economic blocs and rapidly growing markets. At this point, we have to mention that the global economical map is different between countries, regions or continents. Some countries have markets that grow more rapidly than others, and many countries are part of international, economical and political, agreements that affect trade, so multinational companies gain a foothold in these markets by investing directly in them (Deresky,2006).. The final reason for FDI is to gain access to technology and know-how as well as the protection of domestic and foreign markets. In essence, there are examples of multinationals that have saved their own and foreign markets by making investments in these markets and take a strategic advantage due to the high-technology acquirement their investments provide (Piggott and Cook, 2006). Advantages and Disadvantages of Specialisation The model of comparative advantage and the theory of absolute advantage are both based on specialisation. Specialization, at production level, occurs when a worker becomes skilled and efficient at a specific task in order to be able to produce more goods or services than other workers. Countries that produce specialised goods could have many advantages. First, specialisation at international level means that a country will benefit from the trade of specialized goods with other countries. Second, specialisation makes workers to becomes quicker at producing goods or services; consequently, the production per good become cheaper and the production levels are increase. Therefore, a country can be competitive and maintain or expand the wealth it already has (Piggott and Cook, 2006). The third point is the gain of know-how. A country that focuses on the specific production of a good can become an expert and invest in research on that good. Fourth, a country can enhance its reputation. If a country becomes an expert it is possible to increase the quality and reliability of its products, she will create a reputation and the demand of its products will increase (Bingham, Combined Proceedings, 2005, Vol.55). However, the concentration of production factors on one product may have the opposite results. First, a country will depend on a higher degree from others if it just exports one good and imports all the others. Second, countries should be aware that specialised workers demand better wages and this can also affect the total production cost in a negative way. Third, it has to be mentioned that the theory of specialisation makes some assumptions and simplifications, which are not always valid, such as: (a) there is full employment, (b) there are no constant costs and countries have the same dynamic in the future (c) the theories are based on barter, so money is not required in these models, (d) we assume that there are two countries and two goods only and (e) the mobility of labour is assumed to be perfect (Daniels et al., 2008). Advantages and Disadvantages of International Trade The trade theories mentioned before in this essay is the base for us to understand the figure of international trade in the world economy we observe today. International trade has a variety of aspects. Firstly, as an advantage, it includes the theory of free trade, which supports the unrestricted free flow of goods and services between countries. Trade without barriers has positive benefits for all involved, and it creates free markets, which are best for most exchange. As a result, countries trade more over time, so globalisation will be inevitable. Secondly, world class economists set their theories for international trade. They attempt to figure how it works, but each theory is based on different assumptions and limitations. As a result, new theories were born (Daniels et al., 2008). To counter the theories of international trade, a considerable number of people believe that trade and foreign investments may badly affect local industry and work force. They suggest an economic policy of restraining free trade with means like quotas or tariffs in order to protect the national market; a theory widely known as protectionism (Hill, 2006). As a whole, countries trade with each other and manage their exports or imports based on their capabilities and needs. Due to the worlds competive environment, nations support their industries to claim better results for their interests not only domestically but worldwide. With business going international, countries and companies are trying to expand their wealth and influence other countries or markets, with direct or portfolio investment (ibid). Arguments in favour of free trade and relevant theories According to Hill (2006), the theory of free trade is relevant to the theories of International Trade. Both theories assume that there is unrestricted trade between two or more countries, but the free trade theory includes three major principles: (a) there are no barriers or obstacles to mobility, (b) there are no trade restrictions and (c) there are no transportation costs. Apart from the assumptions, new questions are presented. For example, the free trade theory suggests that trade is based on the lack of costs, but it does not explain which factors made these costs. As a result, the theory of Heckscher-Ohlin was established. Two Swedish economists, Eli Heckscher and Bertil Ohlin, studied the trade theories and conclude in two deductions. First, there is more than one factor of production. For example, goods do not need only labour but capital and land also. Secondly, different factors are used for the production of different goods. Furthermore, different countries have a different number of factors of production (or endowments), and this results in different relative factor prices. This means that land-intensive goods should be relatively cheap in a country with a great deal of land, and the same is valid for labour-intensive and capital-intensive countries. This leads to the theorys basic conclusion that countries should specialize in goods that use the factor of production intensively they have in abundance (Piggott Cook, 2006). According to the Heckscher-Ohlin theorem, countries like the United States, for example, with a higher capital per head than other countries, should export capital-intensive goods and import labour-intensive goods. In 1954, the economist Wassily Leontief tried to apply the theorem to reality. He used a mathematical technique named input-output analysis to measure the amount of imports and exports worth US$ 1milion, on data of 1947. Leontief found that to replace US imports with domestic output would need 170 more years per worker of labour and US$ 3.1million of capital. On the other hand, to reduce US exports by US$ 1 million would provide 182.3 years of labour time and US$ 2.6 million of capital. When he compared the two results, he showed that exports from the US were more labour intensive than imports into the US, which is the opposite outcome to that predicted by Heckscher-Ohlin. The worlds most capital-intensive country was exporting labour intensive goods (Husted Melvin, 2007) . The previous analysis is known as the Leontief paradox and it is known as the biggest weakness to the Heckscher-Ohlin theory. Some economists argued that Leontiefs analysis did not include human capital in his motion of labour all labour is taken to have the same skill. As a result, failure to include these factors might have caused him to mismeasure the labour intensity of US imports and exports (Mmieh, 2010). Based on the failure of Heckscher-Ohlin theory, economist Paul Krugman (1970) developed his new trade theory. According to this theory, some countries specialize in the production of a particular product and export it, not because they have different factor endowments, but because they can support these products in the global markets. For example, a countrys production specialisation in the products of airplanes, can give a competitive advantage to the country not only at domestic but in the international airplane production market (ibid). In relevance to new trade theory, Michael Porter (1994) attempted to explain why particular nations achieve international success in particular industries. His theory, referred as the theory of national competitive advantage, underlines that country factors such as domestic demand and domestic rivalry are very important for nations dominance in the production and export of particular goods (Hill, 2006). Conclusion In this paper, we first examined the two primary ways international business occur, based on numerous theories of world-class economists. Global Trade and FDI are the most important figures of world trade today and include a number of aspects but in this paper we discussed two of them: specialisation and international trade. We also examined the concept of free trade; with an extensive look at the theories that were created based on the free burgeoning of goods. Today, globalisation sets new rules for the countries and firms involved in the business world, a much more complicated market scene, which needs different approaches, careful planning and correct use of information for the best investment results. International business follows the path of globalisation and I personally believe that the in years to come we will witness an inevitable change route for the way we do business.

Use of Geographic Data in Natural Disasters Essay -- Natural Disaster

Missing Figures The use of geographic data in the field of preventing and mitigating natural disasters remains a pioneering activity. However the circulation of the technology is still hindered by many issues such as the difficulty in obtaining the appropriate raw data, the lack of effective graphical user interfaces, the intricacy of predictive models and the expense of digitisation (Carrara et al., 1999). Natural disasters are becoming more frequent around the world, as seen in figure 1, which shows that in 1975 there were approximately 50 disasters reported, compared to approximately 400 being reported in 2010. They are a damaging phenomenon upon the Earth’s citizens and the physical environment, but with the use of geographic data, natural disasters such as floods, earthquakes, cyclone s and landslides can be monitored and mapped to ensure a successful disaster response strategy can be put in place to ensure we can protect people and the environment as much as possible. The success of these strategies depends upon access to real-time spatial information that can be used effectively by the Geomatics Industry, governments, relief agencies among others to provide a quick response to the disaster areas (Herold et al., 2005). Kunkel et al. (1999) suggest that there is strong scientific evidence of an increase in extreme precipitation events in particular regions, whilst water shortages are becoming more apparent in other regions, which indicates that weather driven natural disasters will surely become more frequent, resulting in the use of Geogr... ...97) Managing the natural disasters from space technology inputs. Acta Astronautica, 40. Kunkel, K.E., Easterling, D.R., Andsager, K. (1999) Long-Term Trends in Extreme Precipitation Events over the Conterminous United States and Canada. J. Climate, 12. Li, Q. and Li, D. (1999) Proceedings of the International Symposium on Digital Earth Science Press. The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. National Research Council (1995) The global positioning system: a shared national asset : recommendations for technical improvements and enhancements. National Academy of Public Administration Raheja, N., Ojha, R. and Mallik, S. (Undated) GIS Development: Role of Internet-based GIS in effective natural disaster management. [Online] Available from: http://www.gisdevelopment.net/technology/gis/techgi0030pf.htm

Social Commentary in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald :: free essay writer

The Great Gatsby:Â   Social Commentary On one level The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald comments on the careless gaiety and moral decadence of the period in which it was set. It contains innumerable references to the contemporary scene. The wild extravagance of Gatsby's parties, the shallowness and aimlessness of the guests and the hint of Gatsby's involvement in crime all identify the period and the American setting. But as a piece of social commentary The Great Gatsby also describes the failure of the American dream, from the point of view that American political ideals conflict with the actual social conditions that exist. For whereas American democracy is based on the idea of equality among people, the truth is that social discrimination still exists and the divisions among the classes cannot be overcome. Myrtle's attempt to break into the group to which the Buchanans belong is doomed to fail. Taking advantage of her vivacity, her lively nature, she seeks to escape from her own class. She enters into an affair wi th Tom and takes on his way of living. But she only becomes vulgar and corrupt like the rich. She scorns people from her own class and loses all sense of morality. And for all her social ambition, Myrtle never succeeds in her attempt to find a place for herself in Tom's class. When it comes to a crisis, the rich stand together against all outsiders. Myrtle's condition, of course, is a weaker reflection of Gatsby's more significant struggle. While Myrtle's desire springs from social ambition, Gatsby's is related more to his idealism, his faith in life's possibilities. Undoubtedly, his desire is also influenced by social considerations; Daisy, who is wealthy and beautiful, represents a way of life which is remote from Gatsby's and therefore more attractive because it is out of reach. However, social consciousness is not a basic cause. It merely directs and increases Gatsby's belief in life's possibilities. Like Myrtle, Gatsby struggles to fit himself into another social group, but his attempt is more urgent because his whole faith in life is involved in it. Failure, therefore, is more terrible for him. His whole career, his confidence in himself and in life is totally shattered when he fails to win Daisy. His death when it comes is almost insignificant, for, with the collapse of his dream, Gatsby is already spiritually dead. As social satire, The Great Gatsby is also a comment on moral decadence in modem American society.

Diversity in the Workplace Essay

This diversity audit begins with a background about the company, as well as some important information about key Diversity executives. What will be addressed in the audit are what efforts Johnson & Johnson made to foster diversity competence and understand, what efforts were made in furthering the knowledge or awareness about diversity, what strategies were used to address the challenges of diversity and how will you ensure that your leaders and managers will be committed to the diversity initiative. The audit concludes with a quote from the vice president of recruiting at Johnson and Johnson, as well as their Diversity and Inclusion Programs and Activities from the Johnson and Johnson Website. In 1886 three brothers, Robert Wood Johnson, James Wood Johnson and Edward Mead Johnson, fount the Johnson & Johnson company in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Today, the company employs approximately 128,700 people with more than 275 operating companies in more than 60 countries. The worldwide hea dquarters remains in New Brunswick, New Jersey. The company prides itself in caring for everyone in the world, they feel this inspires and unites the people who work there. Johnson & Johnson is the world’s sixth largest consumer healthy company, the world’s largest and most diverse medical device and diagnostic company, the world’s fifth largest biologics company and the world’s eighth largest pharmaceutical company. These companies together touch the lives of more than a billion people throughout the world every single day. This company, without a doubt, knows what diversity is. Their product line in itself is so diverse that I would say that diversity is what this company was built on and continues to grow from. They offer health care products that go from taking care of a skin blemish or a headache, to beautifying your hair and teeth products, to products used for metastatic breast cancer, hip placements and coronary stents, to prescription drug products treating everything from migraines to cancer a nd serious infections. According to  the company website, diversity is described as follows, â€Å"People and values are our greatest assets. Diversity is a central part of the cultures across the Johnson & Johnson Family of Companies. It’s a key to our people’s passion for improving the health and well-being of people the world over. Further, our commitment to diversity and inclusion is deeply rooted in the values instilled by Our Credo and is exemplified in a number of our companies’ programs and activities. We recognize that differences in age, race, gender, nationality, sexual orientation, physical ability, thinking style and background bring richness to our work environments. Such differences help us connect better with the health needs of people in communities around the world. We believe that attracting, developing and retaining a base of employees that reflects the diversity of our customers is essential to our success. We also believe success hinges on relationships with diverse professional and patient organizations, civic groups and suppliers†. (jnj.com) In addition, Johnson and Johnson offers mentoring programs and leadership development programs to ensure personal professional growth. During my research I found that Johnson & Johnson has supporting affinity groups that has strengthened the impact of diversity not only within the organization, but in the community as well. Some of these groups include the Community of Asian Associates at Johnson and Johnson, South Asian Professional Network and Association, Gay and Lesbian Organization for Business and Leadership, Women’s Leadership Initiative, African-American Leadership Council and Hispanic Organization for Leadership and Achievement. These groups are just the tip of the iceberg as far as diversity for Johnson & Johnson. A key executive, Anthony P. Carter is Vice President of Global Diversity and Inclusion, as well as Chief Divers ity Officer for Johnson and Johnson. In an article from Diversity Global Magazine, Mr. Carter was named a 2013 Diversity Executive of Distinction. The article stated that Mr. Carter’s focus on developing cutting edge Diversity and Inclusion programs and strategies is successful because it is aligned with the company’s strategic business objective. As I researched deeper into the company’s responsibility to its customers, employees, communities and shareholders I found that Johnson & Johnson’s respect towards these groups of people who keep the company alive is supported by Anthony’s implementation and design of an inclusive global organizational system, as  well as Diversity and Inclusion incentives. He has further developed opportunities for Johnson and Johnson to maximize their diversity. He oversees an office that implements programs such as Crossing the Finish Line, which is a career acceleration program for people of color. Programs such as these are crucial in developing world-class diverse leaders. An interesting quote by Anthony P. Carter sums up his role nicely, â€Å"Diversity and inclusion describe how we can work together to bring innovative ideas, products and services together to advance the health, well-being and the quality of life of those we serve.† (Diversity Global) In the article Harnessing Diversity to Affect the Bottom Line by Ron Dory, it was noted that one of Carter’s best practices in relation to diversity is the use of ERGs (Employee Resource Groups), which have brought in new markets and impacted the company’s growth in a positive way. Johnson and Johnson prides itself in it’s membership in the Billion Dollar Roundtable, an elite group of companies that spend a billion dollars annually on women owned and minority owned suppliers. Johnson & Johnson’s use of Employee Resource Groups or ERGs as an organization where people who share a culture or background, for example gender, ethnic, religion or age, can meet to rejoice within their culture or address issues in relation. ERGs are often chartered organizations and have volunteer leaders and business plans that are in alignment with the organizations goals and bring value to the company. Mr. Carter’s use of ERGs at Johnson & Johnson has allowed everyone to see that they are not the same but different while trying to achieve the same goals and objectives. He has also advised other companies to not move towards being the same or creating an organization where differences are not acknowledged. It appears the ERGs have allowed diversity to take a strong root within Johnson & Johnson. The have led to the company receiving numerous awards as leaders in diversity. As an example, Johnson and Johnson continue to develop world-class leaders. In September 2013, The United States Hispanic Chamber of Commerce (USHCC) announced this year’s Corporate Advocate of the Year, and the award went to Johnson and Johnson’s Chief Procurement Officer for Medical Devices/Supplier Diversity, Ruben Taborda. The president and CEO of USHCC stated, â€Å"Ruben Taborda is a visionary leader who has demonstrated an unwavering commitment to fostering business relationships between minority-owned enterprises and corporate America. Mr.  Taborda is a true role model, leading by example, committed to providing concrete growth opportunities for Hispanic businesses throughout the nation.† (Global Newswire) Ruben Taborda is just another example of the success Johnson & Johnson has had implementing diversity programs throughout their company. Just from my audit I have seen their success with women, Hispanics and many other minority situations. They truly believe in what they stand for and what they are trying to accomplish in the diversity arena. In retrospect, even though Johnson and Johnson has an impeccable reputation regarding diversity, even to the point that the company thrives from the immense diversity, it is always on the top of the list of the best places work and was one of Divers ity Incs. Top Companies for Diversity, problems arise sometimes when employees or perspective employees do not see it the same way. Examples of this come in the form of lawsuits against the company for discrimination. One case in particular, Francine Parham, vice president of human resources was always bothered that there was a lack of minorities in the high positions within the company. She filed a lawsuit claiming that she did not receive a promotion because she is African-American and was then fired for speaking out against â€Å"a corporate culture of discrimination† (Gordon). Perham stated that in the lawsuit that she was told by her supervisor that he envisioned a promotion for her within the next twelve months and that she never got the promotion because that position was eliminated and that she was not qualified for a higher position even though she had excellent performance review. Perham also alleged that less qualified white men and women were promoted to higher positions and she believes this was because she is black. She also pointed out the lack of diversity at the top. Johnson and Johnson’s responded, â€Å"We have a deeply established commitment to diversity and incl usion in the workplace and deny the allegations in this case†(Gordon). There were two other cases, one in which an African American and one a Hispanic, filed similar lawsuits, accusing Johnson and Johnson of paying them lower wages and denying promotions to people of color. After ten years, that case was dismissed. Despite the fact that five of the highest-paid executives at Johnson and Johnson are white, four of them being men, and ten of the twelve directors are white with no women of color on the board, Calvert Investments still rated Johnson and Johnson’s diversity an 85 out of 100. They have an  abundance of internal minority groups and minority recruitment outreach efforts, they are a strategic partner of Minority Business Round Table and they sponsor scholarships for minority students. (Gordon) I believe that companies such as Johnson and Johnson, with such outstanding reviews regarding diversity, and notable for their roles in diversity, are sometimes an easy target for people who are looking for lawsuit settlements. Reverse discrimination plays a large part in this process. It is very easy for a person, especially one of a protected class, to claim discrimination, especially against mega companies such as Johnson and Johnson. These people know that the company would not want their reputation tainted so they make false claims to try and get whatever they can from the company. So the five highest paying executive in Johnson and Johnson may be white, but they also may be the most qualified, they may have worked the hardest to get to that point and they may be the most dedicated thereby deserving every dollar they earn. In my own experience, in managing a small local business, it is the qualified, hard-working, dedicated and reliable employee that will be promoted, no matter what the race, gender, religion, etc. According to Global Dynamics Inc., â€Å"leading healthcare provider, Johnson and Johnson has been rated, by Diversity Inc. Magazine as the #1 company for promoting diversity and inclusion in the U.S. Diversity and Inclusion (D&I) are regarded as critical factors in making Johnson and Johnson one of the â€Å"best places to work† in the U.S†. Although Johnson and Johnson met some challenges when they wanted to expand its Diversity and Inclusion initiative globally, they succeeded in meeting those challenges and the initiative was a success. Town hall meetings led by local leaders and web-based training reached several countries within the regions, live video conferences and live international video meetings were introduced and became groundbreaking for Johnson and Johnson. This resulted in improved employee morale, productivity and communication. (Global-Dynamics) In conclusion, my diversity audit of Johnson and Johnson showed they are a major player in the diversity arena. They have diverse employees, market their products to diverse groups and have initiatives in place to expand lead their company diversity even further in the future. An article in the NY Times sums it well by stating, â€Å"Johnson and Johnson’s achievements in diversity, in concept and in practice, succeed in bringing value to all those  con stituents† (Forsythe). Johnson & Johnson is a company that is focused on building their brand by building superior products and understanding the importance of diversity in achieving success in the global marketplace. They have made diversity an integral part of their processes including procurement, supply chain, product development, information management, sales and marketing, and community service. My audit research of Johnson & Johnson showed they are a worldwide leader in all of the above and they make a concerted effort to lead other companies in the same direction. Having all the initiatives and being part of outside organizations that push diversity allows them to exert pressure necessary to achieve diversity in the workplace throughout the world. The NY Times article also quoted Marjorie Geller, Vice President of Recruiting as saying â€Å"There’s no question about it, our commitment to diversity has a powerful impact on our recruitment and our talent-development processes, as well as the products we offer to customers. We try very hard to assure that our diverse culture translates into value for our customers, our employees, our communities and our stockholders† (Forsythe). The following is the Diversity and Inclusion Programs and Activities from the Johnson and Johnson Website: Throughout our companies, a wealth of programs and activities support our belief that a diverse, inclusive culture is essential to business success. Following is a sampling of these activities. Employee Resource Groups Employee resource groups are voluntary, employee-driven groups that focus on shared interests and experiences and look to apply those perspectives to initiatives that create value for the enterprise. These groups provide support, networking as well as personal and professional enrichment opportunities for their members such as mentoring, community outreach, supplier diversity, career development and cultural awareness activities. Mentoring Programs Mentoring is widely offered throughout the Johnson & Johnson Family of Companies as formal or informal programs. We look to expand learning opportunities and support development of a diverse workforce by making these  nurturing relationships available to an ever increasing number of employees across the enterprise. In the spring of 2010, Johnson & Johnson introduced a custom, web-enabled mentoring service called Mentoring Works! that contributes to the Global Diversity & Inclusion strategic objective of building a culture of inclusion. Mentoring Works! is an enabler for talent development, employee engagement, and effective knowledge transfer as it makes it easier for people to connect, network and learn from each other. Diversity University Recognizing that education is essential to learning about the benefits of diversity and inclusion, we have established the Johnson & Johnson Diversity University. Diversity University is a dynamic online website designed to help employees build the competencies and the skills needed to understand and value differences and the benefits of working collaboratively to meet our Credo commitments and business goals. Diversity University includes a variety of guides, toolkits and resources for self-guided learning; a strong elearning curriculum that includes Diversity & Inclusion Fundamentals, Building Trusting Relationships in a Global and Diverse Environment, and Leveraging Diverse Thinking Styles: The Whole Brain ® Advantage; as well as links to other interactive portals providing cross-cultural education and skill building exercises. Office of Diversity & Inclusion The Office of Diversity & Inclusion was formed as a functional group within Johnson & Johnson to drive diversity & inclusion as a business imperative and to ensure a competitive advantage. The Chief Diversity Officer reports directly to the Chairman and Chief Executive Officer of Johnson & Johnson. The team serves as business catalysts, executing a global diversity strategy that enables Johnson & Johnson to win in the global marketplace. (JNJ.com) Also of interest is the following web address which shows the details of Johnson and Johnsons Diversity and Inclusion Business Model: http://www.jnj.com/sites/default/files/pdf/Global%2BDI%2BCall%2BOut.pdf References: Diversity Global. Retrieved from: http://www.diversityglobal.com/tops.aspx?id=Anthony-P-Carter-1449 Dory, R. Harnessing Diversity to Affect the Bottom Line. Epoch Times (Oct 10, 2013). Retrieved from: http://www.theepochtimes.com/n3/313845-harnessing-diversity-to-affect-the-bottom-line/ Forsythe, J. (2005) Leading With Diversity. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com/marketing/jobmarket/diversity/jandj.html Global-Dynamics (2013). Retrieved from: http://www.global-dynamics.com/johnson-johnson Globe Newswire (2013). Retrieved from: http://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2013/09/25/575887/10049970/en/USHCC-Honors-Ruben-Taborda-of-Johnson-Johnson-with-Corporate-Advocate-of-the-Year-Award.html Gordon, C. Fired Johnson & Johnson Exec Claims ‘Culture Of Discrimination (July 2013) Retrieved from: http://jobs.aol.com/articles/2013/07/15/fired-johnson-and-johnson-discrimination/[->0] JNJ.com (2013). Retrieved from: http://www.jnj.com/about-jnj/diversity [->0] – http://jobs.aol.com/articles/2013/07/15/fired-johnson-and-johnson-

Personal space and territoriality Essay

In psychology, the notion of personal space is mainly applied to humans, while the notion of territoriality traditionally belongs to animal psychology domain. Human personal space is also different from that of nonhumans. The concepts of territoriality and personal space are integrally linked to the modes of communication humans and nonhumans choose in their daily social and psychological interactions. Although the concept of personal space is different across cultures, Cassidy (1997) refers to the four common personal space zones that are mostly similar across different cultures: intimate zone, personal zone, social zone, and public zone determine the specific communicational and behavioral patterns and require following specific social standards. Psychology professionals need objective understanding and evaluation of personal space cultural differences. For example, Japanese people promote the importance of large personal space; in America, foreigners need time to psychologically adjust to the extremely narrow understanding of personal space that Americans use in their daily lives. Ultimately, the concept of personal space forms a unique psychological climate that is never common for all cultures. In many aspects, our territorial behavior is similar to that of animals: â€Å"territories are like elastic discs – the center is well defined and defended aggressively by the occupier, but further away from the center the intruder is dealt with far less aggressively† (Cassidy, 1997). Like animals, we also display animal territorial habits; very often we tend to take the same seat in class; in public places, we use different means of marking our personal spots. However, as animal territorial behavior is determined by instincts and impulses, human personal space is heavily impacted by the complex set of social and psychological factors. Age and gender substantially change one’s perceptions about personal space; some cultures make people more sensitive to the boundaries of their personal space. It would be appropriate to suggest that â€Å"although personal space area is not constant, it is a constant variable impacting the psyche† (Cassidy, 1997). Conformity and obedience Conformity and obedience form close relationship in psychology. Compliance is the general characteristic of the two concepts that links them to a complex system of group relations. Huffman (2005) provides extensive evaluation of how human psyche reacts to group pressures; conformity and obedience are referred to as the most frequent components of group interactions. Conformity is a form of compliance where the individual is pressured by social factors and where compliance is driven by the fear of isolation, embarrassment or social anxiety. Sometimes, conformity can be voluntary, when we consciously choose to join a particular group of individuals. Conformity often turns into a form of compliance that is involuntary and is not fully conscious. When we are compelled to follow certain behavioral norms (for example, we should be polite with elder people), we do change our behavior, but we do not necessarily change our attitudes toward these people. That is the essence of conformity: the behavioral change takes place without changing the attitude (Huffman, 2005). Obedience is very similar to conformity in that it represents another form of compliance, which involves the concept of authority and implies that the person is forced to follow commands. It is not rare that people are forced to step over their attitudes and morals to follow the rule of authority. Conformity may turn into obedience, but as we seek conformity to become socially accepted and to be praised and recognized, obedience is the result of our natural desire to avoid punishment. Conformity and obedience are the two ends of the one social continuum, representing the two ultimate forms of compliance in human behavior. Through the cultural prism, conformity is a prevalent characteristic of collectivistic environments, while obedience is the necessary feature of authoritarian behavioral style.